Introduction

The path that led Germany toward the Holocaust is characterized by a complex interplay of social, political, cultural, and economic factors that collectively shaped the course of one of the most tragic events in human history. Eight decades later, the question “Why Germany?” remains a vital area of exploration in modern history. Through the lens of distinguished scholars such as Peter Hayes, Helmut Walser Smith, Celia Applegate, Christopher Clark, Brett Fairbairn, Katharine Anne Lerman, Angelika Schaser, Peter Fritzsche, and Robert Gellately, this analysis seeks to weave together the diverse threads of Germany’s history from German unification until the Holocaust. The incorporation of insights from Fritzsche and Gellately enriches the examination of the Nazi rise to power and the societal dynamics that facilitated it, emphasizing the combination of coercion and voluntary support that underpinned the regime’s consolidation of power.

This analysis posits that the emergence of the Holocaust in Germany was not an abrupt anomaly but rather the result of a complex combination of historical, social, political, economic, and cultural factors unique to the German experience. By investigating the nation’s struggle with identity, the evolution of deep-rooted antisemitism, the impact of nationalism and imperial ambitions, the transformative effects of modernization and societal upheaval, and the critical roles of propaganda and public complicity; it becomes apparent how these elements merged to create fertile ground for radical ideologies. This exploration reveals how Germany’s specific path toward unification, its pursuit of a cohesive national identity amidst rapid industrialization, and the exploitation of existing prejudices and economic anxieties collectively led to one of history’s darkest chapters.

Historical Context of Identity Politics in Germany

German history leading up to the 20th century reveals a nation grappling with its identity amidst the tides of modernization and nationalism. At the heart of this identity crisis lay a deeply ingrained antisemitism, which evolved over centuries from religious prejudice to a more sinister form of racial hatred. This transformation was not merely a reflection of changing societal values but was also deeply influenced by the political and social upheavals of the time. One of the most poignant examples of this evolving antisemitism is found in the town of Konitz, where the murder of Ernst Winter not only unveiled the latent prejudices within the community but also highlighted the role of media in exacerbating these tensions. Helmut Walser Smith, in his exploration of this case in The Butcher’s Tale: Murder and Anti-Semitism in a German Town, illustrates the complexity of antisemitic sentiments and their devastating impact on the Jewish community. Smith notes, “For the excited crowds throughout the region, looking for someone to punish, all of this— the rumors, the head, the news of Israelski’s arrest— would suffice.”[1] This statement underscores the irrational and baseless nature of the accusations levied against the Jewish population, fueled by existing antisemitic sentiments and a sensationalist press eager to find a scapegoat.

Moreover, Smith’s work sheds light on the broader implications of such incidents, suggesting a societal predisposition towards scapegoating and prejudice that was not limited to Konitz but was indicative of a national trend. The rapid spread of rumors and unfounded accusations against the Jewish community in Konitz exemplifies the dangerous combination of latent antisemitism and a charged atmosphere, ripe for exploitation by those seeking to further their agendas. Smith asserts that the role of media and influential figures shaped public opinion and spread anti-Semitic narratives, highlighting the significant impact of such narratives on the societal psyche.[2]

The historical context of antisemitism in Germany is important when understanding that the Second Reich was torn between several identities. While this internal conflict persisted, one thing was certain, there was little room for Liberalism and even less for outgroups: namely the Jews. The complex interplay of social, religious, and political factors, led to internal conflicts between the State, Catholics, genders, laborers, and many other identities. The case of Konitz, as explored by Smith, offers a microcosmic view of the broader antisemitic undercurrents that plagued German society, setting the stage for the catastrophic events that would unfold in the subsequent decades.

The Role of Nationalism and Imperial Ambitions

The rise of nationalism and the pursuit of imperial ambitions significantly shaped Germany’s historical and societal trajectory. Katherine Anne Lerman, the author of “Chapter 1: Bismarckian Germany,” in Imperial Germany 1871-1918, details the strategic maneuvers of Otto von Bismarck, whose policies and diplomatic strategies led to the unification of Germany. This unification, achieved through “a revolutionary ‘formation from above,’” via military conquest, addressed the political fragmentation but left unresolved deeper questions of German identity and nationhood.[3] Bismarck’s foreign policy, marked by cautious diplomacy aimed at preventing a two-front war, and his domestic policies, including the introduction of social insurance legislation, were pivotal in fostering a German national identity. Yet, as Lerman notes, “political unification was not synonymous with national unity.”[4] Through Lerman, it becomes evident that the complexities within Germany’s newfound identity disrupted the goals of national unity. Through recognition and appeasement, Bismarck’s implementation of pensions and insurance sated the people’s thirst for class-based reforms. Had he not implemented these policies, Germany may have gone Communist instead of Fascist in the proceeding generation.

Kaiser Wilhelm II rapidly transformed the nation through militarism and aspirations of European dominance and world recognition. Retallack contrasts the perspectives of Thomas and Heinrich Mann to illustrate the multifaceted nature of this era, marked by the rise of new social classes and conflicts amidst industrialization and urbanization. This period was characterized by a struggle for political and social cohesion, with the dynamics between Prussia and the Reich, the fragmented party system, and the rise of extra-parliamentary nationalist organizations adding layers of complexity to Germany’s political landscape.

The nationalism that burgeoned during this time was intertwined with Germany’s imperial ambitions, which were not only about territorial expansion but also about asserting Germany’s power and status on the global stage. This ambition shifted the European balance of power and contributed to the long-term origins of the First World War.[5] The impact of militarism and the pursuit of a world empire, fueled by nationalism, patriotism, and solidarity, yet contrasted by the hardships and divisions of war, underscored the resilience and adaptability of the German state and society. Through Lerman, there are insights into how nationalism and imperial ambitions were central to Germany’s socio-political changes and the shaping of its national identity.

Economic Factors and Modernization

The interwar period in Germany was marked by the profound aftermath of World War I, the harsh conditions of the Treaty of Versailles, and the global impact of the Great Depression collectively contributed to unprecedented economic distress and political instability in Germany. This context fueled the radicalization of German society and politics, leading Germans to crave new systems of leadership. Peter Fritzsche’s Germans into Nazis navigates through the sociopolitical landscape of Germany, emphasizing how the Nazi Party capitalized on national discontent to seize power. Fritzsche argues that the Nazis’ ascent was deeply rooted in societal desires and fears, effectively mobilizing support through a radical nationalist agenda. The concept of a ‘national revolution’ was central to the Nazis’ strategy, promising not only the restoration of Germany’s lost pride but also a new order transcending the political and social chaos of the time. Fritzsche notes, “Mobilizing enormous energies and profound expectations for a new beginning…the Nazis seized power in January 1933 in what amounted to a national revolution.”[6]

Robert Gellately’s Backing Hitler complements Fritzsche’s analysis by examining the mechanisms of Nazi consolidation of power and the garnering of popular support. Gellately highlights the societal complicity in the Nazi regime, he argues that Hitler’s dictatorship was predicated on both coercion and significant voluntary support from the German people. This perspective is vital for understanding the dynamics of power and control in Nazi Germany. Gellately points out, “None of this distracted his attention from ambitious plans…to install the ‘tightest authoritarian state leadership’”[7] Gellately makes a case that Hitler’s ambition was to dismantle democracy and establish an authoritarian state; to which it is known that he did.

Together, Fritzsche and Gellately offer a nuanced understanding of the rise of Nazism, highlighting the critical role of socio-economic conditions, political dynamics, and the strategic manipulation of nationalist sentiments. The economic hardship and political volatility of the period eroded faith in the Weimar Republic, making the public receptive to the Nazis’ promises of economic revival and national rejuvenation. The strategic mobilization of nationalist fervor, economic policies, and a promise of stability by the Nazis facilitated a complex relationship between the regime and its citizens, culminating in the ascent of Nazism to leadership followed by domination.

In “Chapter 3: Economic and Social Developments” of Imperial Germany 1871-1918, Brett Fairbairn details a microhistory, presenting a vivid picture of this transformative era. He emphasizes the transition from a primarily agrarian society into a leading industrial power and the profound impact of economic and social modernization on German society. Fairbairn describes the era as one of significant change, where “The market re-ordered the lives of citizens and the structures of communities, undermining incompatible social institutions, forcing the transformation of others, and creating new ones.”[8] The Second Reich’s distinctions of class identities, characterized by divergent lifestyles, occupations, and economic constraints, were profoundly shaped by the relentless demands of the market economy. The urban working poor faced dire living and working conditions, with a significant portion of their income consumed by basic necessities, residing in overcrowded and unsanitary housing.[9]

Fairbairn’s narrative, focusing on the life of a female factory worker, illustrates the precarious existence of the urban working class and the gendered nature of wage labor. Identities that did not fit the traditional mold, were left in difficult and unrecognized situations; young, unmarried women, seen as supplementary earners, navigated the challenging dynamics of a changing economy.[10] Germany’s transition from an “Agrarstaat with a powerful industry to an Industriestaat with a strong agrarian base,”[11] involved diverse adaptation strategies among different social classes, highlighting the complexities of industrialization.

The rapid industrial ascent of Germany, fueled by capital investment, technology, skilled labor, and state support, underscores the nation’s significant economic growth. “Germany’s big banks probably accelerated economic growth by injecting capital into high-risk, high-growth sectors like coal, steel, transportation, utilities, and heavy engineering.”[12] While the state played a crucial role in industrialization through investments in infrastructure and social welfare policies, this modernization did not lead to a uniform society. Instead, modernization to a society that remained powerful yet fragmented, integrated economically and politically but divided socially. Fairbairn states, “Industrialization had changed almost everything and eliminated nearly nothing.”[13] This era of economic transformation and modernization was marked by both progress and paradox. It laid the groundwork for Germany’s emergence as a global power while also exposing the inherent tensions within its rapidly changing society. The complexities of this period, with its mix of tradition and modernity, unity, and regionalism, provide crucial insights into the socio-economic underpinnings of Germany’s path toward the 20th century. Through the lens of economics and the rationalization of modernization, it becomes clearer that Germany would put value on those who produced in the economy over those whom they asserted did not. Identifying productive members of a society is inherently difficult. For Germans, the distinction of diverse forms of labor would become more important as the economy plummeted, later during the Weimar Republic.

Cultural and Religious Influences

The unification of Germany in 1871 heralded not only the creation of a nation-state but also marked the beginning of a period characterized by intensified religious and confessional conflicts. James Clark, in his exploration of this era in “Chapter 4: Religion and Confessional Conflict” of Imperial Germany 1871-1918, reveals how these conflicts transcended doctrinal disagreements to deeply embed themselves within the political, social, and everyday lives of Germans. Clark highlights the post-unification period as a crucible of heightened religious significance, emphasizing the deepening divides between Protestants and Catholics. These schisms extended beyond the church doors, becoming emblematic of broader societal fissures. These divides were not simply a matter of theological dispute but were emblematic of broader societal fissures that Clark argues, “politics, associational networks, and everyday society,” were permeated by religious and cultural wars to an extent previously unseen.[14] An example of this is the local disputes in Affaltrach over Luther’s birthday celebrations, which serve as an illustration of how religious discord was woven into the communal fabric​​. Yet, Clark also highlights that Imperial Germany’s story was not solely one of division. The unintended consequences of Bismarck’s Kulturkampf, aimed at reducing Catholic influence, actually strengthened Catholic political mobilization, fostering a reassessment of confessional identities, and illustrating the complex relationship between division and integration within the nation. To emphasize this point, Clark quotes Adolf Stöcker, a Lutheran Chaplin:

‘We view the Jewish Question neither as a religious question, nor as a racial question, although in its roots it is both,’ he told a mass meeting in 1887. ‘Insofar as it appears in its external dimension as a socio-ethical question, we handle it thus’[15]

In addition to religious conflicts, the period was significant for its cultural evolution. This was a time when the German cultural identity was being negotiated within the broader European avant-garde movement, with artists and intellectuals engaging in a multi-national and multi-ethnic dialogue about the role of art in a rapidly changing world​​. Celia Applegate’s analysis underscores the importance of the democratization of art and culture during this transformative period. She points out that “the idea of the nation took centre stage” in cultural discourse, but so did the multiplicity, as gender, class, religion, and region intersected with the shaping of identity.[16] This era’s cultural vibrancy, however, was not without its tensions, as the quest for innovation often collided with the entrenched conservative values of the German establishment. Applegate asserts, “The Imperial period after 1871 saw the final consolidation of a complicated system of densely interrelated but dispersed cultural institutions,” marked this era as one of profound cultural development.[17] The artistic community found itself navigating between the desire for creative freedom and the constraints imposed by traditional sensibilities​​.

Gender Dynamics and Social Hierarchies

The transformative period following the establishment of the German Empire in 1871 profoundly impacted social hierarchies within the nation, this included gender dynamics. Angelika Schaser’s analysis within “Chapter 6: Gendered Germany” In Imperial Germany 1871-1918, provides a critical lens through which to view these changes, particularly highlighting the legal, economic, and societal frameworks that reinforced and perpetuated gender hierarchies. Schaser notes: “The German Civil Code of 1900 underscored the gender order by codifying in law the husband’s authority within marriage, reflecting and perpetuating patriarchal norms.”[18] This legislation not only institutionalized gender disparities but also became a focal point of resistance, with the women’s movement vocally protesting these inequalities. Schaser describes this resistance as a “vigorous” struggle against the entrenched norms, signifying a pivotal moment in the negotiation of gender roles within German society.[19] The impact of industrialization and nationalism on gender roles further complicated the societal landscape. Schaser points out the delineation between the masculine public sphere of industrial labor and the feminine domestic sphere, with women being idealized as bearers of cultural identity through their roles as mothers and wives. This idealization served to reinforce traditional gender roles while simultaneously creating spaces for contestation and renegotiation of these roles considering the changing economic and social conditions.[20]

Moreover, demographic and educational shifts interacted significantly with gender norms. Urbanization and population growth expanded educational opportunities but continued to reflect gendered expectations. The employment of women increased, albeit under conditions of inequality, highlighting the prevailing gender norms despite economic advances. Schaser emphasizes the temporary nature of “women’s work,” viewed as a stopgap until marriage, underscoring their secondary status in the labor market.[21]

Ultimately, Schaser’s analysis reveals that gender cannot be isolated from its complex intersections with other aspects of identity and society. Class, religion, and regional identities all constituted multifaceted experiences of gender, with the continual negotiation and contestation of gender roles challenging and reinforcing gender boundaries across different social strata. Schaser’s critical examination sheds light on gender not as a fixed binary but as an evolving set of societal roles, expectations, and identities shaped by complex historical forces. Through her analysis, the nuanced landscape of gender dynamics in Imperial Germany is unveiled as a system of power relations, in which women were placed somewhere beneath men.

Reflections on Germany’s Path to the Holocaust

The nationalism that propelled the unification of Germany also harbored the seeds of exclusion and division, particularly evident in the rise of anti-Semitism and the eventual tragedy of the Holocaust. In Why? Explaining the Holocaust, Peter Hayes provides an extensive examination of the evolution of antisemitism. He poignantly defines antisemitism as the following:

A categorical impugning of Jews as collectively embodying distasteful and/or destructive traits. In other words, antisemitism is the belief that Jews have common repellent and/or ruinous qualities that set them apart from non-Jews. Descent is determinative; individuality is illusory.[22]

 Peter Hayes, continues by noting, “The invention [of the word antisemitism] marked an ominous qualitative change…focused not on what Jews believed or how they behaved but on what they intrinsically and unchangeably supposedly are.”[23] This evolution of antisemitism from a religious to a racial ideology underscores the dangerous potential of nationalism to foster exclusionary and divisive tendencies. The enduring legacy of antisemitism and the imperative to confront historical prejudices remain starkly relevant in contemporary society. As Hayes adeptly revealed, the antisemites would not accept conversions and the Germans saw them as a destructive collective, leaving Jews to an inescapable fate. The Holocaust serves as a profound lesson on the consequences of unchecked hatred and bigotry. Helmut Walser Smith’s analysis of the Konitz murder and the broader context of antisemitic violence emphasizes the importance of historical awareness and critical media consumption in combating prejudice.[24]

The unification of Germany, a monumental historical event, laid bare the complexities of nationalism, the challenges of socio-political integration, and the critical need to confront historical prejudices. This period showcased the dangers of unchecked nationalism and the importance of fostering a society that values both unity and diversity. Instead, Germany fell victim to bloodlust and ambitious dreams of wealth and power. Modernization and rapid global changes created divisions between Germany’s diverse population, pitting groups against one another: men against women, Catholics against Protestants and the State, citizens against immigrants, and of course, Aryans against Jews.

It becomes clear that unity does not erase diversity nor resolve underlying tensions. Instead, the German experience highlights the importance of integrating diverse communities within a unified nation. The lessons from Germany’s past, marked by the achievements and challenges of nation-building, serve as guideposts for understanding and navigating the complexities of the modern world.

Conclusion

In the final analysis, the investigation of, “Why Germany?” uncovers a difficult narrative that transcends simplistic explanations for one of history’s most profound tragedies. The Holocaust’s emergence from within German society was not a sudden deviation but rather a catastrophic convergence of historical trajectories, each marked by deep-seated complexities and contradictions inherent in the nation’s path to modernity. Scholarly contributions include: Peter Hayes, Helmut Walser Smith, Celia Applegate, Christopher Clark, Brett Fairbairn, Katharine Anne Lerman, Angelika Schaser, Peter Fritzsche, and Robert Gellately, each of whom underscore a broader, unsettling truth about the capacity for human societies to harbor both the seeds of remarkable progress and the potential for profound inhumanity.

The Holocaust was the outcome of an intricate web of factors—deep-rooted antisemitism, fervent nationalism, imperial ambitions, and the tumultuous processes of modernization and societal upheaval—all interwoven within the unique historical context of Germany. These elements, compounded by a volatile mix of economic anxiety and societal discontent, created a breeding ground for radical ideologies that promised redemption and unity at the cost of humanity and moral integrity. Moreover, this inquiry into Germany’s descent into darkness serves not only as a historical account but also as a solemn reminder of the fragility of democratic institutions and the perennial need for vigilance against the forces of division and hate. The analysis underscores the importance of understanding the past, not as a distant relic, but as a mirror reflecting the challenges and dangers that persist in contemporary society. It compels us to recognize the enduring relevance of confronting prejudices, championing inclusivity, and safeguarding the values of human dignity and rights against unknown threats and the never-ending and ever-present allure of authoritarianism.

Annotated Bibliography

Applegate, Celia. “Chapter 5: Culture and the Arts.” In Imperial Germany 1871-1918, edited by James Retallack, 141-166. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Applegate examines the interplay between cultural innovation and traditional values in Imperial Germany, emphasizing the role of art and intellectuals in shaping national identity. Her analysis reveals the tensions and synergies within the cultural sphere as it grapples with modernity and the European avant-garde movement, offering insights into the complexities of cultural identity formation.

Clark, Christopher. “Chapter 4: Religion and Confessional Conflict.” In Imperial Germany 1871-1918, edited by James Retallack, 114-140. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Clark provides an insightful analysis of the religious and confessional conflicts that marked Imperial Germany, illustrating how these disputes influenced political, social, and everyday life. The chapter emphasizes the impact of the Kulturkampf and the role of religion in the nation’s internal divisions and identity politics.

Fairbairn, Brett. “Chapter 3: Economic and Social Developments.” In Imperial Germany 1871-1918, edited by James Retallack, 89-113. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Fairbairn’s chapter addresses the economic transformations and social developments in Imperial Germany, providing a comprehensive overview of the period’s industrialization and its effects on German society. The analysis highlights the complexities of economic growth and social change, including the emergence of new class identities.

Fritzsche, Peter. “January 1933” In Germans into Nazis, 137-215. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1998.

Peter Fritzsche examines Adolf Hitler’s ascent to power and how the Nazi Party began its sinister transformation of German society. Fritzsche investigates the societal, political, and economic conditions that made Germany fertile ground for Nazi ideology. With a focus on the aftermath of World War I, the impacts of the Treaty of Versailles, and the Great Depression, he illuminates how these factors contributed to widespread disillusionment and despair among the German populace. Fritzsche argues that the Nazis’ rise was not merely due to their manipulative propaganda but also stemmed from their ability to tap into the existing societal discontent and promise a rejuvenated nation.

Gellately, Robert. Backing Hitler. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2001. 21-33.

Gellately challenges the conventional narrative that the Nazi dictatorship was predominantly upheld through terror and repression. Instead, he posits that a significant portion of the German population provided voluntary support, driven by a combination of ideological alignment, personal benefit, and societal pressures.

Hayes, Peter. “Chapter 1: TARGETS: Why the Jews?” In Why?: Explaining the Holocaust, 3–35. New York, NY: W.W. Norton and Company, 2018.

Through a detailed examination of the origins and execution of the Holocaust, Hayes offers a nuanced understanding of the factors leading to Jewish persecution. His work sheds light on the evolution of antisemitism into a central tenet of Nazi ideology, providing a critical foundation for understanding the Holocaust’s historical and moral implications.

Lerman, Katharine Anne. “Chapter 1: Bismarckian Germany.” In Imperial Germany 1871-1918, edited by James Retallack, 37-63. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Lerman offers an analysis of Bismarck’s policies and their impact on the formation of the German Empire, detailing how Bismarck’s leadership and the political structures he established influenced Germany’s development and its position within Europe.

Schaser, Angelika. “Chapter 6: Gendered Germany.” In Imperial Germany 1871-1918, edited by James Retallack, 167-191. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Schaser’s chapter focuses on the gender dynamics and social hierarchies in Imperial Germany, examining the legal and societal constructs that define gender roles. The work highlights the feminist movement’s challenges and contributions to societal change during this period.

Smith, Helmut Walser. The Butcher’s Tale: Murder and Anti-Semitism in a German Town. New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 2003.

Smith’s book investigates a specific case of anti-Semitic violence in early 20th-century Germany, using it as a lens to explore broader themes of antisemitism, community dynamics, and the socio-political climate of the time. The work provides valuable insights into the roots and manifestations of antisemitism in German society.

[1]. Helmut Walser Smith, The Butcher’s Tale: Murder and Anti-Semitism in a German Town (New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 2003). 31.

[2]. Smith, The Butcher’s Tale, 60.

[3]. Katharine Anne Lerman, “Chapter 1: Bismarckian Germany,” in Imperial Germany 1871-1918, ed. James Retallack (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008), 39-40.

[4]. Lerman, “Bismarckian Germany,” 53.

[5]. Lerman, “Bismarckian Germany,” 43.

[6]. Peter Fritzsche, “January 1933,” in Germans into Nazis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1998), 214.

[7]. Robert Gellately, Backing Hitler (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2001), 21.

[8]. Brett Fairbairn, “Chapter 3: Economic and Social Developments,” in Imperial Germany 1871-1918, ed. James Retallack (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008), 90-1.

[9]. Fairbairn, “Chapter 3: Economic and Social Developments,” 92.

[10]. Fairbairn, “Chapter 3: Economic and Social Developments,” 91.

[11]. Fairbairn, “Chapter 3: Economic and Social Developments,” 103.

[12]. Fairbairn, “Chapter 3: Economic and Social Developments,” 105.

[13]. Fairbairn, “Chapter 3: Economic and Social Developments,” 112.

[14]. Christopher Clark, “Chapter 4: Religion and Confessional Conflict,” in Imperial Germany 1871-1918, ed. James Retallack (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008), 114.

[15]. Christopher Clark, “Chapter 4: Religion and Confessional Conflict,” 134.

[16]. Celia Applegate, “Chapter 5: Culture and the Arts,” in Imperial Germany 1871-1918, ed. James Retallack (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008), 168.

[17]. Celia Applegate, “Chapter 5: Culture and the Arts,” 146.

[18]. Angelika Schaser, “Chapter 6: Gendered Germany,” in Imperial Germany 1871-1918, ed. James Retallack (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008), 167.

[19]. Angelika Schaser, “Chapter 6: Gendered Germany,” 168.

[20]. Angelika Schaser, “Chapter 6: Gendered Germany,” 168.

[21]. Angelika Schaser, “Chapter 6: Gendered Germany,” 176.

[22]. Peter Hayes, “Chapter 1: TARGETS: Why the Jews?” in Why?: Explaining the Holocaust (New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2018), 3.

[23]. Peter Hayes, “Chapter 1: TARGETS: Why the Jews?” 15.

[24]. Helmut Walser Smith, The Butcher’s Tale: Murder and Anti-Semitism in a German Town (New York, NY: W.W. Norton, 2003). 31.